The Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice

Register      Login

SEARCH WITHIN CONTENT

FIND ARTICLE

Volume / Issue

Online First

Archive
Related articles

VOLUME 22 , ISSUE 8 ( August, 2021 ) > List of Articles

REVIEW ARTICLE

Risk Factors, Diagnosis, and Management of Halitosis in Children: A Comprehensive Review

Keywords : Children, Halitosis, Organoleptic test, Oral malodor, Pediatric population, Volatile sulfur compounds

Citation Information : Risk Factors, Diagnosis, and Management of Halitosis in Children: A Comprehensive Review. J Contemp Dent Pract 2021; 22 (8):959-963.

DOI: 10.5005/jp-journals-10024-3139

License: CC BY-NC 4.0

Published Online: 09-11-2021

Copyright Statement:  Copyright © 2021; The Author(s).


Abstract

Aim: The present manuscript aims at providing a comprehensive overview of the epidemiology, risk factors, diagnostic aids, and management of halitosis in a pediatric population. Background: Halitosis refers to bad breath from the mouth that seems unpleasant or offensive to others. This condition is prevalent worldwide, including all age-groups. However, studies on the pediatric population are limited. Self-confidence and personality development are important factors that the child builds up during their developmental stages. Halitosis may affect them both on personal and social aspects; hence, it is important to have beforehand knowledge and the modes to intercept it, paving the way to a positive growth of the child. Review results: On reviewing the literature, the common risk factors for halitosis in children constituted predominantly oral factors that varied from poor oral hygiene, gingivitis, periodontal diseases, dental caries, tongue coating, mouth breathing, and so on. Their diagnosis commonly included the organoleptic test, sulfide monitoring, and gas chromatography along with the assessment of questionnaire by the parents and older children. The management was predominantly directed toward the identified source of halitosis along with instructions and counseling on the benefits of a good oral hygiene regime. Conclusion: The importance of cultivating a day-to-day practice of oral hygiene regime in the children will not only accustom them toward the benefits of good oral health but also help them to tackle halitosis and in turn their inhibitions associated with it. Clinical significance: Halitosis, though a prevalent condition experienced at various stages of life, is crucial to identify and manage, especially in the pediatric population owing to its influence on personal and on social aspects of life.


HTML PDF Share
  1. Attia EL, Marshall KG. Halitosis. Can Med Assoc J 1982;126(11):1281. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7074455/
  2. Cortelli JR, Barbosa MD, Westphal MA. Halitosis: a review of associated factors and therapeutic approach. Braz Oral Res 2008;22:44–54. DOI: 10.1590/s1806-83242008000500007.
  3. Dinc ME, Altundag A, Dizdar D, et al. An objective assessment of halitosis in children with adenoid vegetation during pre-and post-operative period. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2016;88:47–51. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijporl.2016.06.042.
  4. Sayedi SJ, Modaresi MR, Saneian H. Effect of metronidazole on halitosis of 2 to 10 years old children. Iran J Pediatr 2015;25(1):e252. DOI: 10.5812/ijp.252.
  5. Aliyu I, Lawal TO. Perception and awareness of halitosis in children by caregivers seen in our pediatric outpatient department. SRM J Res Dent Sci 2018;9(2):63. DOI: 10.4103/srmjrds.srmjrds_81_17.
  6. Aylıkcı BU, Çolak H. Halitosis: from diagnosis to management. J Nat Sci Biol Med 2013;4(1):14. DOI: 10.4103/0976-9668.107255.
  7. Bollen CM, Beikler T. Halitosis: the multidisciplinary approach. Int J Oral Sci 2012;4:55–63. DOI: 10.1038/ijos.2012.39.
  8. Hughes FJ, McNab R. Oral malodour - a review. Arch Oral Biol 2008;53(1):S8–S12. DOI: 10.1016/S0003-9969(08)70003-7.
  9. van den Broek AMWT, Feenstra L, de Baat C. A review of the current literature on aetiology and measurement methods of halitosis. J Dent 2007;35:627–635. DOI: 10.1016/j.jdent.2007.04.009.
  10. Porter SR, Scully C. Oral malodour (halitosis). Br Med J 2006;333(7569):632–635. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.38954.631968.AE.
  11. Tangerman A, Winkel EG. Intra- and extra-oral halitosis: finding of a new form of extra-oral blood-borne halitosis caused by dimethyl sulphide. J Clin Periodontol 2007;34(9):748–755. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-051X.2007.01116.x.
  12. Murata T, Yamaga T, Iida T, et al. Classification and examination of halitosis. Int Dent J 2002;52:181–186. DOI: 10.1002/j.1875-595x.2002.tb00921.x.
  13. Yaegaki K, Coil JM. Examination, classification, and treatment of halitosis; clinical perspectives. J Can Dent Assoc 2000;66(5):257–261. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10833869/
  14. Madhushankari GS, Yamunadevi A, Selvamani M, et al. Halitosis–an overview: part-I–classification, etiology, and pathophysiology of halitosis. J Pharm Bioallied Sci 2015;7(Suppl 2):S339. DOI: 10.4103/0975-7406.163441.
  15. Motta LJ, Bachiega JC, Guedes CC, et al. Association between halitosis and mouth breathing in children. Clinics 2011;66(6):939–942. DOI: 10.1590/s1807-59322011000600003.
  16. Villa A, Zollanvari A, Alterovitz G, et al. Prevalence of halitosis in children considering oral hygiene, gender and age. Int J Dent Hyg 2014;12(3):208–212. DOI: 10.1111/idh.12077.
  17. Patil PS, Pujar P, Poornima S, et al. Prevalence of oral malodour and its relationship with oral parameters in Indian children aged 7-15 years. Eur Arch Paediatr Dent 2014;15(4):251–258. DOI: 10.1007/s40368-014-0109-0.
  18. Yoshida M, Takamori K, Ono Y, et al. Study on halitosis children: questionnaire and halitosis test. Pediatr Dent J 2001;39:694–703. Available at: https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-4043113016&origin=inward&txGid=e18fb9bb8ce8aa6dc3cc0842510c59da#
  19. Kanehira T, Takehara J, Takahashi D, et al. Prevalence of oral malodor and the relationship with habitual mouth breathing in children. J Clin Pediatr Dent 2004;28(4):285–288. DOI: 10.17796/jcpd.28.4.xp213r6534322m58.
  20. Ueno M, Ohnuki M, Zaitsu T, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of halitosis in Japanese school children. Pediatr Int 2018;60(6):588–592. DOI: 10.1111/ped.13561.
  21. Nalçacı R, Dülgergil T, Oba AA, et al. Prevalence of breath malodour in 7-11 year old children living in Middle Anatolia, Turkey. Community Dent Health 2008;(25):173–177. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18839725/
  22. Yamaguchi H, Tada S, Nakanishi Y, et al. Association between mouth breathing and atopic dermatitis in Japanese children 2–6 years old: a population-based cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2015;10(4):e0125916. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125916.
  23. Triana BE, Ali AH, León IG. Mouth breathing and its relationship to some oral and medical conditions: physiopathological mechanisms involved. Rev Habanera Cien Méd 2016;15(2):200–212. Available at: http://scielo.sld.cu/pdf/rhcm/v15n2/rhcm08215.pdf
  24. Alqutami J, Elger W, Grafe N, et al. Dental health, halitosis and mouth breathing in 10-to-15 year old children: a potential connection. Eur J Paediatr Dent 2019;20(4):274–279. DOI: 10.23804/ejpd.2019.20.04.03.
  25. Lin MIH, Flaitz CM, Moretti AJ, et al. Evaluation of halitosis in children and mothers. Pediatr Dent 2003;25(6):553–558. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14733469/
  26. Nalçaci R, Sönmez IS. Evaluation of oral malodor in children. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontol 2008;106(3):384–388. DOI: 10.1016/j.tripleo.2008.03.001.
  27. Kara C, Tezel A, Orbak R. Effect of oral hygiene instruction and scaling on oral malodour in a population of Turkish children with gingival inflammation. Int J Paediatr Dent 2006;16(6):399–404. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-263X.2006.00769.x.
  28. Amir E, Shimonov R, Rosenberg M. Halitosis in children. J Pediatr 1999;134(3):338–343. DOI: 10.1016/s0022-3476(99)70460-9.
  29. Keceli T, Gulmez D, Dolgun A, et al. The relationship between tongue brushing and halitosis in children: a randomized controlled trial. Oral Dis 2015;21(1):66–73. DOI: 10.1111/odi.12210.
  30. Gholami F, Minah GE, Turng BF. Oral malodor in children and volatile sulfur compound-producing bacteria in saliva: preliminary microbiological investigation. Pediatr Dent 1999;21(6):320–324. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10509331/
  31. Al Madhi NA, Sulimany AM, Alzoman HA, et al. Halitosis and associated risk factors in children: a cross-sectional study. J Contemp Dent Pract 2021;22(1):51–55. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34002709/
  32. Ziaei N, Hosseinpour S, Nazari H, et al. Halitosis and its associated factors among Kermanshah high school students (2015). Clin Cosmet Investig Dent 2019;11:327. DOI: 10.2147/CCIDE.S215869.
  33. Babacan H, Sokucu O, Marakoglu I, et al. Effect of fixed appliances on oral malodor. Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop 2011;139(3):351–355. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajodo.2009.03.055.
  34. Costacurta M, Petrini M, Biferi V, et al. The correlation between different techniques for the evaluation of oral malodour in children with and without orthodontic treatment. Eur J Paediatr Dent 2019;20(3):233–236. DOI: 10.23804/ejpd.2019.20.03.12.
  35. Keris E, Atabek D, Güngör K. Effects of fixed and removable space maintainers on halitosis. BMC Oral Health 2016;16(1):99. Available at: https://bmcoralhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12903-016-0297-6
  36. Greenman J, Lenton P, Seemann R, et al. Organoleptic assessment of halitosis for dental professionals—general recommendations. J Breath Res 2014;8(1):017102. DOI: 10.1088/1752-7155/8/1/017102.
  37. Romano F, Pigella E, Guzzi N, et al. Patients’ self-assessment of oral malodour and its relationship with organoleptic scores and oral conditions. Int J Dent Hyg 2010;8(1):41–46. DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-5037.2009.00368.x.
  38. Lee PPC, Mak WY, Newsome P. The aetiology and treatment of oral halitosis: an update. Hong Kong Med J 2004;10(6):414–418. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15591601/
  39. Patil SH, Kulloli A, Kella M. Unmasking oral malodor: a review. People's J Sci Res 2011;5(1):61–67. Available at: https://www.pjsr.org/Jan12_pdf/12.%20Suvarna%20H%20Patil.pdf
  40. Murata T, Rahardjo A, Fujiyama Y, et al. Development of a compact and simple gas chromatography for oral malodor measurement. J Periodontol 2006;77(7):1142–1147. DOI: 10.1902/jop.2006.050388.
  41. Hanada M, Koda H, Onaga K, et al. Portable oral malodor analyzer using highly sensitive In2O3 gas sensor combined with a simple gas chromatography system. Anal Chim Acta 2003;475(1–2):27–35. DOI: 10.1016/S0003-2670(02)01038-3.
  42. Tangerman A, Winkel EG. The portable gas chromatograph OralChromaTM: a method of choice to detect oral and extra-oral halitosis. J Breath Res 2008;2(1):017010. DOI: 10.1088/1752-7155/2/1/017010.
  43. Guedes CC, Bussadori SK, Weber R, et al. Halitosis: prevalence and association with oral etiological factors in children and adolescents. J Breath Res 2019;13(2):026002. DOI: 10.1088/1752-7163/aafc6f.
  44. Petrini M, Costacurta M, Ferrante M, et al. Association between the organoleptic scores, oral condition and salivary β-galactosidases in children affected by halitosis. Int J Dent Hyg 2014;12(3):213–218. DOI: 10.1111/idh.12083.
  45. Van Den Broek AM, Feenstra L, et al. A review of the current literature on management of halitosis. Oral Dis 2008;14(1):30–39. DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-0825.2006.01350.x.
  46. Yilmaz AE, Bilici M, Tonbul A, et al. Paediatric halitosis and Helicobacter pylori infection. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 2012;22(1):27–30. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22237186/
  47. AlMadhi NA, Sulimany AM, Alzoman HA, Bawazir OA. Halitosis in Children Undergoing Full Mouth Rehabilitation under General Anesthesia. Children (Basel). 2021;8(2):149. DOI: 10.3390/children 8020149.
PDF Share
PDF Share

© Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) LTD.